Introduction

Procrastination is a pervasive self-regulatory failure with potentially severe outcomes [ 1 ]. It is defined as the voluntary postponement of an intended course of action, despite being aware of the negative consequences that such a delay may have. Five types of procrastination have been identified: general or life routine procrastination, decisional procrastination, neurotic procrastination, compulsive or dysfunctional procrastination, and academic procrastination [ 2 ].

Academic procrastination has been recognized as a significant issue for university students [ 3 ] and is a common phenomenon in academic settings [ 4–6 ]. Academic procrastination is defined as an irrational tendency to postpone the initiation or completion of an academic task [ 3 ]. Deliberate academic delays, such as handing in assignments, preparing for exams, and writing final term papers, exemplify academic procrastination [ 7 ].

Academic procrastination has significant negative external and internal consequences. External consequences include compromised performance and progress, decreased long-term learning, loss of opportunities, lower self-efficacy, diminished quality of life, financial difficulties, and strained relationships. Internal consequences of procrastinator behavior include anxiety, poor mental health or decreased well- being, irritation, despair, and feelings of guilt . Furthermore, several psychosomatic diseases can arise due to the postponement of academic tasks [ 11 ].

In recent years, promoting students’ academic achievement has been one of the most pressing concerns in education. Various studies have examined the factors influencing improvements in students’ achievement, and one of the most significant factors is procrastination [ 12 ]. It appears that academic procrastination affects over 70% of college students and can lead to learning difficulties [ 13 ]. Turkish undergraduate students have reported evidence of academic procrastination [ 14 ]. Moreover, 52% of Middle East Technical University students also procrastinate on their academic tasks [ 15 ], and 97% of students at the University of Bristol were found to be affected by different impacts of procrastination [ 16 ].

The results of previous studies on university students revealed that procrastinators had lower scores and poorer educational performance than their peers [ 17 , 18 ]. One of the fields in which students have experienced significant procrastination is medical sciences [ 6 ]. The consequences of procrastination among those preparing to take on critical responsibilities can be irreparable. Rehabilitation sciences, a branch of medical sciences, focus on reducing disability and improving quality of life [ 19 ].

The need for research on the prevalence of academic procrastination is a crucial first step in proposing academic support for students. The present study may help institutions develop more effective intervention strategies to mitigate the effects of academic procrastination and enhance academic outcomes [ 20 ]. Although one study has been conducted on procrastination within medical sciences, concluding that a considerable number of medical students revealed high levels of academic procrastination [ 6 ], to our knowledge, only one study has been carried out at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences on procrastination. However, no research has yet been conducted in the field of rehabilitation sciences in Asian countries, particularly in Iran. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of procrastination among students at the School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS).

Methods

Study Design and Participants

The present cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted at the School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS), Shiraz, Iran. Approval for the study was obtained from the SUMS Ethics Committee, by the Helsinki Declaration (IR.SUMS.REC.1396.S1035).

The study population consisted of all undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled in the School of Rehabilitation Sciences. A total of 368 university students voluntarily participated in the survey. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 33 years. They represented different grade levels (Bachelor’s and Master’s programs) and were enrolled across five departments.

All participants provided informed consent before participation and were asked to complete a questionnaire on academic procrastination. This questionnaire has been used in several Iranian studies and has been demonstrated to be a reliable and valid tool for assessing academic procrastination [ 21 ].

The inclusion criteria encompassed all students at the School of Rehabilitation Sciences, SUMS. The exclusion criteria were students undergoing psychiatric medication treatment and those who provided incomplete responses to the questionnaire.

Data Collection

To ascertain the prevalence of academic procrastination, the Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students (PASS) was used [ 22 ]. This scale, developed by Solomon and Rothblum, consists of 27 items that measure three areas: exam preparation (8 items), assignment preparation (11 items), and writing term papers (8 items).

PASS uses a 5-point Likert scale to evaluate procrastinatory behavior (1 = never procrastinated, 2 = almost never procrastinated, 3 = sometimes procrastinated, 4 = nearly always procrastinated, 5 = always procrastinated) [ 23 ]. Items 2, 4, 6, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 23, and 25 are reverse-scored [ 24 ].

PASS is a highly reliable and valid instrument, suitable for the quantitative assessment of procrastination behavior in the Iranian population [ 25 ].

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 23. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the prevalence of academic procrastination among students. To examine correlations between procrastination and demographic variables (age, sex, and educational status), Pearson’s Chi-square test was performed.

Additionally, a one-way ANOVA was conducted to assess whether procrastination levels differed across the independent variables. Furthermore, an independent samples t-test was used to compare male and female students on the components of procrastination.

A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

A total of 368 students from the School of Rehabilitation Sciences at SUMS participated in the present study. Of these participants, 230 (62.5%) were female and 138 (37.5%) were male. The mean age of participants was 21.66 ± 2.27 years. The frequency distribution of students is presented in Table 1.

Regarding educational level, 325 (88.3%) of participants were undergraduate students, while the remaining participants were postgraduate students. Among the participants, 297 students completed all items on the procrastination questionnaire, and data from these respondents were included in the final analysis.

The prevalence of academic procrastination by gender is shown in Table 2. Among respondents, 1.3% reported being low procrastinators, 44.2% identified as moderate procrastinators, and 54.5% indicated they were severe procrastinators.

Specifically, among males, 1.8% reported low procrastination, 40.9% reported moderate procrastination, and 57.3% reported severe procrastination. Among females, 1.1% reported low procrastination, 46.0% moderate procrastination, and 52.9% severe procrastination.

However, no significant gender differences in procrastination levels were found in the present study (P > 0.05).

The sample size of audiology students was small; therefore, the low and moderate levels of procrastination were combined for analysis. Regarding differences in academic procrastination by educational status, no significant association was observed, as indicated by the Pearson Chi-square test (P = 0.24) (Table 3). The results showed that students from all disciplines demonstrated procrastinator behaviors.

Concerning academic grade levels, 42.5% of undergraduate students reported a tendency toward moderate procrastination, and 56.0% demonstrated severe procrastinator behavior. Among postgraduate students, 58.1% reported moderate procrastination, 41.9% severe procrastination, and only 1.5% reported mild procrastination. Many students noted that these procrastination behaviors impeded their academic achievement.

However, the analysis revealed no significant difference in procrastination levels between undergraduate and postgraduate students (P > 0.05).

To test whether the levels of procrastination behaviors among students differed according to the age variable, a one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was performed. Based on the findings, no significant main effect due to age differences was observed (F = 1.44, P = 0.238).

According to the ANOVA results, the mean academic procrastination scores for its components are presented across different educational statuses in Table 4. The analysis revealed no significant differences between the various educational statuses in terms of the components of procrastination (P > 0.05).

Table 5 presents the results of the ANOVA comparing the prevalence of procrastination components between the two academic grade levels. The findings indicate a significant difference in procrastination related to preparing assignments (P < 0.05). This suggests that academic procrastination is more prevalent among undergraduate students when preparing assignments.

An independent sample t-test was conducted to compare procrastination components by sex. According to the results listed in Table 6, there was no statistically significant difference between male and female students (P > 0.05).

Additionally, the relationships between age and the components of academic procrastination were evaluated using Pearson's correlation coefficient. The analysis revealed weak negative correlations for all components, including preparing for exams (r = -0.03), preparing assignments (r = -0.06), and preparing the final paper (r = -0.09).

None of these correlations were statistically significant (P > 0.05). These results indicate that younger and older students procrastinate to a similar extent.

Discussion

The current study aimed to gain a better understanding of academic procrastination among students of the School of Rehabilitation Sciences at SUMS. To this end, the Persian version of the Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students (PASS) was administered to students in rehabilitation programs. Descriptive statistics revealed that 54.5% of students exhibited severe procrastination. These findings are consistent with previous studies [ 4 , 6 , 26–28 ], which reported a high prevalence of academic procrastination among university students.

Procrastination is a common phenomenon in academic settings. The majority of university students report procrastinating for more than one hour each day [ 29 ]. The primary reasons for this behavior include task avoidance, laziness, risk-taking, difficulty with decision-making, low self-confidence, perfectionism, and a desire for rebellion against control. Overall, procrastination can be a persistent trait often linked to temperament. This harmful habit has a detrimental impact on learning and academic achievement [ 4 , 29 ]. Additional consequences of procrastination include reduced psychological well-being, a sense of failure, low tolerance, difficulty making decisions, and diminished self-confidence [ 30 ].

Based on the results, 52.9% of females and 57.3% of males exhibited severe procrastination. Previous studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding the role of gender in procrastination [ 31 , 32 ]. Some studies have found no significant relationship between gender and procrastination [ 33 , 34 ], whereas the majority of evidence suggests that males tend to procrastinate more on their tasks [ 5 , 18 , 22 , 35 ]. The results of the present study align with those of previous studies reporting no significant gender differences [ 31 , 36 , 37 ]. Moreover, our findings showed no significant difference between male and female students in the components of academic procrastination.

One possible explanation for academic procrastination among students may be internet addiction. The internet is an indispensable tool in educational settings [ 38 , 39 ]. However, overuse or addiction to the internet is a widespread phenomenon among university students. Previous studies have shown a relationship between academic procrastination and the amount of internet use. This preoccupation causes students to prioritize their social life over their education. The internet or social media can become the central focus of students’ lives, leading to procrastinatory behavior. Additionally, when a task is perceived as boring, complex, or unpleasant, individuals tend to avoid it. Consequently, students may spend more time engaged in online activities and postpone their academic duties. Internet addiction can negatively affect learning efficacy and academic achievement. Furthermore, a negative correlation between internet addiction and poor emotional well- being has been reported [ 40 ].

Another possible explanation for this discrepancy may be cultural differences. Overall, researchers have suggested that the influence of gender on procrastination is difficult to predict [ 41 ].

The results of this study indicated that students across different disciplines (physiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech and language therapy, technical orthopedics, and audiology) exhibited procrastinatory behavior. No directly comparable or conflicting findings were identified in previous studies. The university students in this study ranged in age from 18 to 33 years, a demographic characterized by significant social engagement. As a result, they often prioritize time with friends and family, which may lead to the postponement of academic deadlines [ 42 ].

The results of the present study indicate that procrastination is a widespread issue across various educational levels. Approximately 56% of undergraduate students and 41.9% of postgraduate students in the School of Rehabilitation Sciences reported severe procrastination. This finding is consistent with previous research [ 42 , 43 ]. Academic procrastination is a widespread phenomenon among undergraduate students, with more than 70% of university students exhibiting procrastinatory behavior regularly, and 20% doing so habitually [ 44 ].

One factor attributed to procrastination is poor time management. Lower levels of time management have been linked to increased academic stress and failure. Conversely, time management skills enhance students' engagement, participation in the learning process, and academic motivation. Procrastination may be a strong predictor of lower self-regulation and self-esteem, avoidant behaviors, and self-handicapping in undergraduate settings, and is associated with adverse outcomes such as higher levels of anxiety, stress, and illness [ 43 ]. Therefore, time management skills play an essential role in reducing anxiety and depression [ 45 ].

In addition, laziness, lack of motivation, excessive internet use, social problems, and peer influence have been identified as contributing factors to academic procrastination among undergraduates [ 16 ]. Moreover, procrastination in rehabilitation sciences students may be caused by poor planning and goal setting. The greater the fear or effort required to complete a task, the more likely it is to be procrastinated [ 28 ].

In contrast to our results, some researchers have reported that graduate students tend to procrastinate more on their tasks than undergraduates [ 46 ]. This discrepancy may be attributable to differences in sample size.

In the present study, no significant main effect regarding age differences was observed. This finding is consistent with the results of previous studies [ 47 , 48 ]. However, it contrasts with other studies that reported age-related differences in procrastination [ 16 , 43 ]. The variation in findings may be due to differences in the age range of participants, as prior studies included broader age distributions.

In the present study, the prevalence of procrastination was assessed among various educational courses in three areas of academic functioning: preparing for exams, completing assignments, and writing the final paper. Results demonstrated that procrastination did not differ among various disciplines. No similar or conflicting findings were encountered in previous literature. Academic tasks include writing a term paper, studying for exams, and completing weekly reading assignments [ 49 ].

Many factors contribute to the emergence of academic procrastination behavior. One of the most significant contributing factors to procrastination in students is the influence of social and environmental factors, including peers and family. Students are inherently social beings, and a multitude of social and exogenous agents beyond the student’s control may create unnecessary delays. They interact with other friends in both academic settings and during their free time, and these factors may serve as role models for procrastinating tendencies.

Another possible explanation for procrastination is task characteristics. Different aspects of tasks—such as aversiveness, boredom, and unpleasantness—are strong predictors of procrastination [ 50 ]. DeBruin and Rudnock suggested that increased anxiety when facing exams, failure to meet assignment submission deadlines, poor writing skills, and low grades are consequences of procrastination behavior [ 51 ].

Understanding academic procrastination and the factors that lead to it may help instructors prevent its adverse outcomes [ 52 ]. Additionally, therapeutic intervention methods should focus on modifying environmental stimuli and developing time management skills [ 53 ].

Consistent with the results of previous studies, our findings revealed a higher frequency of procrastination in preparing assignments among undergraduates [ 54 ]. It is essential to identify the factors that may contribute to the development of procrastination habits. These factors include environmental influences, individual personal characteristics, and parenting styles. Some researchers have noted that the development of procrastination is linked to university students’ perceptions of high levels of parental criticism and parental expectations [ 55 ].

Research also indicates relationships between procrastination behavior, goal orientation, and learning strategies among undergraduate students. It was concluded that disorganization and lower use of cognitive or metacognitive learning strategies were positively associated with academic procrastination behavior in undergraduates [ 56 ]. Solomon and Rothblum emphasized that the use of metacognitive learning strategies is essential for students and has the most significant effects on their academic achievements [ 22 ].

In the present study, no significant relationship was found between components of academic procrastination tendency and age. In other words, students of all ages generally showed procrastination behavior. There is a limited number of studies examining the association between academic procrastination behavior and age. The majority of these studies did not report significant age differences in terms of procrastination scores [ 33 ].

University students are at the beginning of adulthood or in late adolescence. These periods are characterized by social compatibility and growing independence. They attempt to juggle and plan their time with friends, and this newfound sense of autonomy adds to this challenge. Consequently, they may tend to disregard the deadlines of academic assignments and opt to work or socialize with friends instead. Therefore, socialization may exacerbate procrastination behaviors [ 42 , 57 ].

The present study has several limitations. First, the data were collected solely from the School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences; therefore, the results cannot be generalized to all educational settings. Second, this study employed a cross-sectional descriptive design, and data were collected over a specific period. Future longitudinal studies should be conducted to determine different levels of academic procrastination among students. Third, the study measured procrastination behavior at a single time point and did not track changes in behavior over time. Future research should be designed to examine procrastination behavior longitudinally. Finally, the sample size of some disciplines, such as audiology, was small, which may limit the generalizability of the findings for those specific disciplines.

Conclusion

Academic procrastination behaviors were equally prevalent across all educational levels, disciplines, and sexes. Students exhibited procrastination behaviors in all components of academic procrastination, including preparing for exams, assignments, and final papers. These findings may help institutions develop more effective intervention strategies to mitigate the impact of academic procrastination and improve academic achievement.

Acknowledgement

This study is based on the BSc thesis of Aref Zare and Mohammad Rakhshandeh Fard Ardakani (Proposal No. 1396-01-51-15931).

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge Shiraz University of Medical Sciences for its scientific and financial support of the present study.

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

References

1. Abdi Zarrin S, Gracia E. Prediction of Academic Procrastination by Fear of Failure and Self-Regulation. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice. 2020; 20(3):34-43.
2. İskender M. The influence of self-compassion on academic procrastination and dysfunctional attitudes. Educational Research and Reviews. 2011; 6(2):230-4.
3. Rahimi S, Vallerand RJ. The role of passion and emotions in academic procrastination during a pandemic (COVID-19). Personality and Individual Differences. 2021; 179:110852.
4. Afzal S, Jami H. Prevalence of academic procrastination and reasons for academic procrastination in university students. Journal of Behavioural Sciences. 2018; 28(1):51-69.
5. Özer BU, Demir A, Ferrari JR. Exploring academic procrastination among Turkish students: Possible gender differences in prevalence and reasons. The Journal of Social Psychology. 2009; 149(2):241-57.
6. Hayat AA, Jahanian M, Bazrafcan L, Shokrpour N. Prevalence of academic procrastination among medical students and its relationship with their academic achievement. Shiraz E-Medical Journal. 2020; 21(7): e96049.
7. Özberk EH, KURTÇA TT. Profiles of academic procrastination in higher education: A cross-cultural study using latent profile analysis. International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies. 2021; 1(1):150-160.
8. Rozental A, Carlbring P. Understanding and treating procrastination: A review of a common self-regulatory failure. Psychology. 2014; 5(13):1488-1502.
9. Rabin LA, Fogel J, Nutter-Upham KE. Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 2011; 33(3):344-57.
10. Hen M, Goroshit M. The effects of decisional and academic procrastination on students’ feelings toward academic procrastination. Current Psychology. 2020; 39(2):556-63.
11. Romash IR, Neyko VE, Romash IB, Vynnyk MI, Gerych OM, Pustovoyt MM. The Nature of the Manifestation of Procrastination among Medical University Teachers during the Period of Altered Psycho-Emotional State During Forsed Social Distancing due to the COVID-19 Pandemic and its impact on the Quality of Life. Scientific Studios on Social and Political Psychology. 2022; 49(52):97-106.
12. Ahmed I, Bernhardt GV, Shivappa P. Prevalence of Academic Procrastination and Its Negative Impact on Students. Biomedical and Biotechnology Research Journal (BBRJ). 2023; 7(3):363-70.
13. Goroshit M, Hen M. Academic procrastination and academic performance: Do learning disabilities matter? Current Psychology. 2021; 40:2490-8.
14. Afzal S, Jami H. Prevalence of academic procrastination and reasons for academic procrastination in university students. Journal of Behavioural Sciences. 2018; 28(1):51-69.
15. Uzun Özer BR. Academic Procrastination: Prevalence, Self- reported reasons, gender difference and it&#039;s relation with academic achievement: Middle East Technical University; 2005.
16. He S. A Multivariate investigation into academic procrastination of university students. Open Journal of Social Sciences. 2017; 5(10):12-24.
17. Kljajic K, Gaudreau P. Does it matter if students procrastinate more in some courses than in others? A multilevel perspective on procrastination and academic achievement. Learning and Instruction. 2018; 58:193-200.
18. Steel P. The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological bulletin. 2007; 133(1):65-94.
19. Damiani C, Mangone M, Paoloni M, Goffredo M, Franceschini M, Servidio M, et al. Trade-Offs with rehabilitation Effectiveness (REs) and Efficiency (REy) in a sample of Italian disabled persons in a in post-acuity rehabilitation unit. Ann Ig. 2020; 32(4):327-35.
20. Fentaw Y, Moges BT, Ismail SM. Academic procrastination behavior among public university students. Education Research International. 2022; 2022:1-8.
21. Haghani H. The relationship between academic procrastination, academic achievement, and self-efficacy in nursing students of Tehran University of Medical Sciences. Iranian Journal of Medical Education. 2014; 14(1):32-40.
22. Solomon LJ, Rothblum ED. Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of counseling psychology. 1984; 31(4):503.
23. Clark JL, Hill Jr OW. Academic procrastination among African- American college students. Psychological Reports. 1994; 75(2):931-6.
24. Mohammadi Bytamar J, Zenoozian S, Dadashi M, Saed O, Hemmat A, Mohammadi G. Prevalence of academic procrastination and its association with metacognitive beliefs in Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Iran. Journal of Medical Education Development. 2017; 27(10): 84-97.
25. Mortazavi F, Mortazavi SS, Khosrorad R. Psychometric properties of the Procrastination Assessment Scale-Student (PASS) in a student sample of Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal. 2015; 17(9): e28328.
26. Liu G, Cheng G, Hu J, Pan Y, Zhao S. Academic self-efficacy and postgraduate procrastination: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology. 2020; 11:1752.
27. Zeenath S, Orcullo DJC. Exploring academic procrastination among undergraduates. International Proceedings of Economics Development and Research. 2012; 47(9):42-6.
28. Daryani DP, Nugrahayu EY, Sulistiawati S. The prevalence of academic procrastination among students at Medicine Faculty Mulawarman University. Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan. 2021; 9(2):118- 26.
29. Chatrakamollathas S, Moha KP, Choochom O. Academic procrastination behavior among college undergraduates: Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences. 2022; 43(1):223-30.
30. Suárez-Perdomo A, Ruiz-Alfonso Z, Garcés-Delgado Y. Profiles of undergraduates’ networks addiction: Difference in academic procrastination and performance. Computers and Education. 2022; 181:104459.
31. Van Eerde W. A meta-analytically derived nomological network of procrastination. Personality and individual differences. 2003; 35(6):1401-18.
32. Milgram NA, Batori G, Mowrer D. Correlates of academic procrastination. Journal of school psychology. 1993; 31(4):487- 500.
33. Watson DC. Procrastination and the five-factor model: A facet level analysis. Personality and individual differences. 2001; 30(1):149-58.
34. A cross sectional study on procrastination: who procrastinate more. International Conference on Education Research and Innovation. 2011; 18:34-37.
35. Kim S, Fernandez S, Terrier L. Procrastination, personality traits, and academic performance: When active and passive procrastination tell a different story. Personality and Individual differences. 2017; 108:154-7.
36. Steel P, Ferrari J. Sex, education and procrastination: An epidemiological study of procrastinators’ characteristics from a global sample. European Journal of Personality. 2013; 27(1):51- 8.
37. A cross sectional study on procrastination: who procrastinate more. International Conference on Education Research and Innovation; 2011.
38. Aznar-Díaz I, Romero-Rodríguez J-M, García-González A, Ramírez-Montoya M-S. Mexican and Spanish university students’ Internet addiction and academic procrastination: Correlation and potential factors. PloS one. 2020; 15(5):e0233655.
39. Geng J, Han L, Gao F, Jou M, Huang C-C. Internet addiction and procrastination among Chinese young adults: A moderated mediation model. Computers in Human Behavior. 2018; 84:320- 33.
40. Analysis and Management of Academic Procrastination Behavior of Students with Internet Addiction. 4th International Seminar on Education Research and Social Science (ISERSS 2021).
41. Ajayi OS. Academic self-efficacy, gender and academic procrastination. Epiphany Journal of Transdisciplinary Studies. 2020; 13(1):75-84.
42. Karimi Moonaghi H, Baloochi Beydokhti T. Academic procrastination and its characteristics: A Narrative Review. Future of medical education journal. 2017; 7(2):43-50.
43. Klassen RM, Krawchuk LL, Rajani S. Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low self-efficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary educational psychology. 2008; 33(4):915-31.
44. Schraw G, Wadkins T, Olafson L. Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of academic procrastination. Journal of Educational psychology. 2007; 99(1):12-25.
45. Roshanisefat S, Azizi SM, Khatony A. Investigating the Relationship of Test Anxiety and Time Management with Academic Procrastination in Students of Health Professions. Education Research International. 2021;1-6.
46. Rahimi S, Hall NC. Why are you waiting? Procrastination on academic tasks among undergraduate and graduate students. Innovative higher education. 2021; 46:759-76.
47. Quispe-Bendezú LE, Araujo-Castillo RL JE, García-Tejada Y, Sprock AS, Villalba-Condori KO. Relationship between academic procrastination and attributions of achievement motivation. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. 2020; 19(1):188-205.
48. Howell AJ, Watson DC, Powell RA, Buro K. Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement. Personality and Individual Differences. 2006; 40(8):1519-30.
49. Onwuegbuzie AJ, Jiao QG. I’ll go to the library later: The relationship between academic procrastination and library anxiety. College and Research Libraries. 2000; 61(1):45-54.
50. Nordby K, Klingsieck KB, Svartdal F. Do procrastination- friendly environments make students delay unnecessarily?. Social Psychology of Education. 2017; 20:491-512.
51. Widhiastuti R, Kanaka S. Academic Procrastination with Self- Control as Moderator. Economic Education Analysis Journal. 2021; 10(2):240-52.
52. Onwuegbuzie AJ. Academic procrastination and statistics anxiety. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education. 2004; 29(1):3-19.
53. Zacks S, Hen M. Academic interventions for academic procrastination: A review of the literature. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community. 2018; 46(2):117-30.
54. Mortazavi F. The prevalence of academic procrastination and its association with medical students’ well-being status. International Journal. 2016; 3(2):1256-1269.
55. Mahasneh AM, Bataineh OT, Al-Zoubi ZH. The relationship between academic procrastination and parenting styles among Jordanian undergraduate university students. The Open Psychology Journal. 2016; 9:25-34.
56. Rakes GC, Dunn KE. The Impact of Online Graduate Students&#039; Motivation and Self-Regulation on Academic Procrastination. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 2010; 9(1):78-93.
57. McCloskey J. Finally, my thesis on academic procrastination. 2012.[ A Thesis].